Liberation of Bulgaria and the Treaty of San Stefano

In 1878, Bulgaria emerged from centuries of Ottoman rule, marking the beginning of a new chapter in its history. The Treaty of San Stefano played a pivotal role in shaping the future of Bulgaria, setting the stage for its national awakening and the eventual unification with Eastern Rumelia. This period, spanning the Russo-Turkish War and the subsequent Congress of Berlin, laid the foundation for modern Bulgaria. The events of 1878 were not just about territorial changes but also about the rise of a national consciousness, the development of political institutions, and the revival of Bulgarian culture and society.

Background: The Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 was a crucial conflict that paved the way for Bulgaria’s liberation. Tensions between the Ottoman Empire and its Christian subjects had been simmering for years, fueled by harsh repression and the desire for independence. The Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–1878 further intensified these tensions, as uprisings in the Balkans highlighted the growing unrest within the Balkans.

Russia, positioning itself as the protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, saw an opportunity to assert its influence in the region. The war was not only about protecting these Christian populations but also about Russia’s strategic ambitions in the Balkans and access to the Black Sea. On April 24, 1877, Tsar Alexander II declared war on the Ottoman Empire, marking the beginning of the conflict.

The war saw several decisive battles that favored the Russian and Bulgarian forces. The Siege of Pleven, one of the most significant battles, ended with a crucial Russian victory after five months of intense fighting. Another critical moment was the defense of the Shipka Pass, where Bulgarian volunteers, known as “Opalchentsi”, alongside Russian soldiers, heroically resisted repeated Ottoman assaults. These victories were instrumental in weakening the Ottoman hold on the Balkans, eventually leading to their defeat.

By early 1878, the Ottoman Empire was on the brink of collapse. The armistice, ending hostilities, was signed in Edirne on January 31, 1878. Subsequent peace negotiations led to the signing of the Treaty of San Stefano on March 3, 1878, a momentous event in Bulgarian history that would shape the nation’s future.

The Treaty of San Stefano (March 3, 1878)

The Treaty of San Stefano (a village west of Constantinople, present-day Istanbul), signed on March 3, 1878) marked the formal end of the Russo-Turkish War. It was negotiated between Russia and the Ottoman Empire to redraw the map of the Balkans and establish a new order in the region. For Bulgaria, the treaty represented a long awaiting dream realized – creating a large, autonomous Bulgarian state.

Provisions of the Treaty

The Treaty of San Stefano established the Principality of Bulgaria as an autonomous region under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. However, this new state was independent, with its own government, military, and administrative structures. The boundaries of this principality were expansive, encompassing almost all territories where ethnic Bulgarians lived. This included present-day Bulgaria and vast areas of Macedonia, Thrace, and parts of Moesia.

The treaty also stipulated the repatriation and protection of Christian populations in these newly liberated territories, reflecting Russia’s role as the protector of Orthodox Christians in the Balkans. Furthermore, the treaty called for withdrawing Ottoman forces from the newly defined Bulgarian lands, effectively ending centuries of Ottoman rule over these territories.

Territorial Changes

The creation of the Bulgarian state under the Treaty of San Stefano was a significant territorial shift in the Balkans. The new Bulgaria was extensive, stretching from the Danube River in the north to the Aegean Sea in the south and from the Black Sea in the east to the Ohrid Lake in the west. This vast territory included regions such as Macedonia, which had a mixed population of Bulgarians, Greeks, and other ethnic groups. See the map of Borders of Bulgaria after the Treaty of San Stefano, 1878.

The treaty was a triumph for many Bulgarians, fulfilling their aspirations for a united Bulgarian state that included all ethnic Bulgarians. Including territories such as Macedonia and Thrace was a realization of the national revival gaining momentum throughout the 19th century.

Reaction to the Treaty

The initial reaction in Bulgaria was one of overwhelming joy and national pride. After centuries of Ottoman domination, the prospect of a united and autonomous Bulgaria was celebrated nationwide. However, this sense of triumph was short-lived. The Treaty of San Stefano quickly became a point of contention among the Great Powers of Europe.

Countries such as Austria-Hungary, Britain, and France viewed the treaty with suspicion and concern. They feared that creating a large Bulgarian state heavily influenced by Russia would upset the balance of power in the Balkans and give Russia too much control. As a result, these powers called for a treaty revision, leading to the Congress of Berlin just a few months later.

Despite its short-lived impact, the Treaty of San Stefano symbolized Bulgarian national aspirations. It set the stage for future struggles for unification and independence and the complex diplomatic maneuvering that would characterize Bulgaria’s relations with its neighbors and the Great Powers in the coming years.

The Congress of Berlin (June–July 1878)

The Congress of Berlin, held from June 13 to July 13, 1878, was convened by the Great Powers of Europe to revise the Treaty of San Stefano. The powers, primarily Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Russia, sought to address their concerns about the balance of power in the Balkans and to curb Russian influence in the region. The decisions made at this congress had profound implications for Bulgaria and its future.

Reasons for Revising the Treaty

The Great Powers were deeply concerned by the provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano. Creating a sizeable Bulgarian state under significant Russian influence threatened to disrupt Europe’s delicate balance of power. Austria-Hungary feared a strong Bulgaria, backed by Russia, would challenge its interests in the Balkans. Britain, too, was wary of Russian expansionism, particularly its potential access to the Mediterranean through the Aegean Sea.

These concerns led to the decision to revise the Treaty of San Stefano. Otto von Bismarck, the German Chancellor, played a pivotal role in organizing the Congress of Berlin, which aimed to address the territorial and political arrangements in the Balkans in a way that would satisfy the interests of all the Great Powers while also preventing the emergence of a Russian-dominated Bulgaria.

Critical Decisions at the Congress

The Congress of Berlin significantly altered the provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano. The most notable change was the drastic reduction of Bulgarian territory. The newly formed Bulgarian state was divided into three parts:

• The Principality of Bulgaria: This was a much smaller autonomous region than initially proposed in the Treaty of San Stefano. It included the area between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains, with its capital at Sofia. The principality was still nominally under Ottoman suzerainty but operated with significant autonomy.
• Eastern Rumelia: This was established as an autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire, with its capital at Plovdiv. Unlike the Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia was not fully independent, though it had its administrative structures.
• Macedonia and Thrace: These regions, included in the more significant Bulgarian state under the Treaty of San Stefano, were returned to direct Ottoman control. This decision was particularly disappointing for Bulgarians, as many ethnic Bulgarians lived in these areas.

View the borders of Bulgaria according to the Treaty of Berlin.

The Congress of Berlin also recognized the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, further reshaping the political landscape of the Balkans. The decisions made at the congress reflected the competing interests of the Great Powers, often at the expense of local aspirations.

Impact on Bulgaria

The revisions made at the Congress of Berlin were met with widespread disappointment in Bulgaria. The society’s dreams of a large, united Bulgarian state were dashed, leading to a sense of betrayal and frustration among the population. The division of Bulgarian territories, particularly the separation of Eastern Rumelia and the return of Macedonia and Thrace to Ottoman control, fueled a desire for unification and territorial recovery.

In the years following the congress, Bulgaria’s foreign policy was primarily driven by the goal of reversing these territorial losses. The desire to unite with Eastern Rumelia and reclaim the lost territories in Macedonia and Thrace became central to Bulgarian national identity and politics. The congress also laid the groundwork for future conflicts in the region, as the borders drawn in Berlin did not align with the ethnic and national aspirations of the people living in the Balkans.

Despite the setbacks, the Principality of Bulgaria, as established by the Congress of Berlin, laid the foundation for the modern Bulgarian state. It provided a starting point for the subsequent struggles for unification and independence, which would unfold in the years to come.

Political Development and Organization of Power

The period between 1878 and 1885 was foundational for the political development of modern Bulgaria. After gaining autonomy through the Treaty of San Stefano and the subsequent adjustments made by the Congress of Berlin, Bulgaria began establishing its political institutions and organizing its governance. This period saw the creation of a constitution, the establishment of a parliamentary system, and the rise of a monarchy, all crucial in shaping the nation’s political landscape.

The Tarnovo Constitution (1879)

One of the most significant milestones in Bulgaria’s political development was the adoption of the Tarnovo Constitution on April 16, 1879. Named after the historic city of Veliko Tarnovo, where it was drafted and adopted, this constitution was one of the most democratic of its time in Europe. It established Bulgaria as a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system and guaranteed a wide range of civil liberties, including freedom of speech, press, and assembly.

The constitution provided for a unicameral parliament (the National Assembly), elected by direct suffrage. This body had the power to legislate, approve the budget, and oversee the government. The Tarnovo Constitution also outlined the separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, ensuring a balance designed to protect the rights of the Bulgarian people.

The First Grand National Assembly of Bulgaria adopted the Tarnovo Constitution on April 16, 1879. This significant event occurred in the historic city of Veliko Tarnovo, which held profound symbolic importance as the former capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire.

The First Grand National Assembly comprised representatives from the newly liberated Bulgarian territories. These representatives were chosen through a combination of elections and appointments. Local assemblies and town councils elected some, while others were selected based on their prominent roles in the Bulgarian national revival and their contributions to the liberation movement. The assembly brought together a diverse group of leaders, including members of the clergy, former revolutionary figures, and intellectuals, reflecting the broad spectrum of Bulgarian society.

This assembly was tasked with drafting and adopting a constitution for the newly autonomous Principality of Bulgaria following the country’s liberation from Ottoman rule. The drafting process was heavily influenced by liberal ideas, reflecting a nation’s aspirations to establish a modern, democratic state. The assembly was presided over by prominent figures in the Bulgarian national movement, such as Petko Karavelov, who would later become one of Bulgaria’s leading liberal politicians.

The Tarnovo Constitution that they adopted was one of the most progressive and democratic constitutions in Europe at the time. It established Bulgaria as a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system and guaranteed a wide range of civil liberties, laying the foundation for developing the modern Bulgarian state.

Formation of Political Parties

The early 1880s saw the formation of Bulgaria’s first political parties, which began to take shape around the two main factions in the National Assembly: the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party. The Liberal Party, led by figures such as Petko Karavelov and Dragan Tsankov, advocated for more democratic reforms and reduced the monarchy’s powers. In contrast, the Conservative Party supported a more decisive role for the monarchy and a more cautious approach to reforms.

These parties played a crucial role in shaping Bulgaria’s political landscape, with debates often centered around issues such as the monarchy’s role, the extent of civil liberties, and the direction of Bulgaria’s foreign policy. The political rivalry between the Liberals and Conservatives set the stage for the political struggles dominating Bulgaria in the years leading up to the unification with Eastern Rumelia.

Challenges and Political Crises

Despite the progress made in establishing political institutions, the period between 1878 and 1885 was marked by several political crises. One of the most significant challenges was the growing tension between Prince Alexander I and the National Assembly. In 1881, Prince Alexander, dissatisfied with the limitations imposed by the Tarnovo Constitution, staged a coup with the support of the Conservatives and temporarily suspended the constitution. This period, known as the Regime of the Full Powers (1881-1883), saw Prince Alexander rule with near-absolute authority.

However, the Liberals and the public strongly opposed this move. By 1883, the Tarnovo Constitution was restored, but the episode highlighted the fragility of Bulgaria’s young political system and the ongoing struggle for power between the monarchy and parliament.

The Role of the Monarch: Prince Alexander I

Bulgaria was established as a constitutional monarchy following the Tarnovo Constitution. In 1879, the Grand National Assembly elected Prince Alexander of Battenberg as the first Prince of Bulgaria. Russian interests largely influenced his election, as Alexander was a nephew of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, who had played a key role in Bulgaria’s liberation.

Prince Alexander I faced the challenge of navigating the complex political landscape of post-liberation Bulgaria. While the Tarnovo Constitution limited the monarch’s powers, Prince Alexander sought to assert more control over the government. This led to tensions between the monarchy and the National Assembly, particularly with liberal factions that favored a stronger parliamentary system.

Parliamentary Elections and Political Developments

Between 1878 and 1885, Bulgaria held several critical parliamentary elections that shaped the young nation’s political landscape. These elections were frequent due to the rapidly changing political environment, the challenges of establishing a new government, and the ongoing struggle for national unification. The elections during this period were held in the territory of the Principality of Bulgaria, which was established by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, while Eastern Rumelia remained a separate, autonomous province under Ottoman suzerainty.

First Parliamentary Elections (April 30, 1879)

The first parliamentary elections in Bulgaria took place on April 30, 1879, shortly after adopting the Tarnovo Constitution. These significant elections marked the beginning of Bulgaria’s parliamentary democracy.

Social and Political Context

• The elections reflected the Bulgarian people’s desire to establish a functioning government following liberation from Ottoman rule.
• The newly established political parties, primarily the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, competed to shape the direction of the new state.
• The Liberals, advocating for democratic reforms and limited monarchical power, emerged as the dominant force in the newly formed National Assembly.

Second Parliamentary Elections (December 27, 1879)

The second parliamentary elections were held on December 27, 1879. These elections were necessitated by the need to form a regular parliament following the initial establishment of the National Assembly.

Social and Political Context:

• The Liberals continued to dominate the political landscape, reflecting widespread support for their platform of national independence and democratic governance.
• The elections highlighted the growing political engagement of the Bulgarian population and the consolidation of political parties.

Third Parliamentary Elections (February 27, 1880)

The third parliamentary election took place on February 27, 1880. These elections were prompted by ongoing political instability and the need to strengthen the government’s legitimacy.

Social and Political Context:

• The Liberals maintained their majority in the National Assembly, but political tensions were growing, particularly over the extent of monarchical power.
• Economic challenges, such as the need for land reforms and infrastructure development, also influenced the political debates of the time.

Fourth Parliamentary Elections (June 27, 1881)

Under extraordinary circumstances, the fourth parliamentary elections were held on June 27, 1881. Prince Alexander I, dissatisfied with the limitations imposed by the Tarnovo Constitution, staged a coup in April 1881, temporarily suspending the constitution and dissolving the National Assembly. The elections formed a new assembly under the Regime of the Full Powers, where Prince Alexander ruled with near-absolute authority.

Social and Political Context:

• The elections took place in a highly polarized environment, with the Conservative Party gaining more influence due to their alignment with the Prince.
• The period saw significant political tension as the Prince’s actions were met with strong opposition from the Liberals, who viewed the suspension of the constitution as a betrayal of democratic principles.

Fifth Parliamentary Elections (September 18, 1883)

The fifth parliamentary election occurred on September 18, 1883, following the restoration of the Tarnovo Constitution in late 1883. The elections were held to re-establish a constitutional government after the period of authoritarian rule.

Social and Political Context:

• The Liberals regained their majority in the National Assembly, but the political landscape was now more divided, with the Conservatives gaining significant ground during the Prince’s rule.
• These elections were crucial in restoring parliamentary democracy and highlighted the ongoing struggle between liberal democratic ideals and conservative calls for solid monarchical authority.

Reasons for Frequent Elections and Political Instability

The frequent elections between 1878 and 1885 reflected the tumultuous nature of Bulgaria’s early political development. Several factors contributed to this instability:

• Political Instability: The new political system was still in its infancy, and the balance of power between the monarchy and parliament was not firmly established. Prince Alexander’s attempts to assert more control over the government led to political crises, including suspending the Tarnovo Constitution and establishing the Regime of the Full Powers.
• Social and Economic Challenges: Bulgaria faced numerous social and economic challenges in the years following its liberation. Land reforms, the integration of different regions, and the need to modernize infrastructure were pressing issues that fueled political debate and competition between the Liberals and Conservatives.
• National Aspirations: The ongoing desire to achieve national unification with Eastern Rumelia and other Bulgarian-populated territories influenced political discourse and elections. The differences between the Liberal and Conservative parties regarding approaching these national goals added to the political complexity.
• Regional Separation: The elections during this period were held only in the Principality of Bulgaria, as Eastern Rumelia remained a separate, autonomous province under Ottoman suzerainty. This regional separation contributed to the political challenges, as the aspirations for unification with Eastern Rumelia were central to Bulgarian politics.

The Balance Between the Liberal and Conservative Parties

Throughout this period, the Liberal Party generally held the upper hand, dominating the National Assembly and influencing the direction of the young state. The Liberals advocated for democratic reforms, expanded civil liberties, and a robust parliamentary system. They sought to limit the influence of the monarchy, believing that Bulgaria’s future lay in a democratic and independent state.

In contrast, the Conservative Party favored a more decisive role for the monarchy and a more gradual implementation of reforms. They believed maintaining stability and order was essential for the new state, particularly given Bulgaria’s external threats and internal challenges. The Conservatives aligned more closely with Prince Alexander I, particularly during the Regime of the Full Powers.

Main Differences Between the Liberal and Conservative Parties

Liberal Party	Conservative Party
Advocated for democratic reforms, expanded civil liberties, and a strong parliamentary system.	Favored a strong monarchy and centralized authority, believing it essential for maintaining stability.
Opposed excessive monarchical power and sought to limit the influence of the monarchy in governance.	Supported gradual reforms and a cautious approach to governance.
Supported the rapid development of Bulgaria as an independent, modern European state.	Aligned with Prince Alexander I, particularly during the 1881–1883 period when the Tarnovo Constitution was temporarily suspended.
Leaders: Dragan Tsankov, Petko Karavelov, and Stefan Stambolov (who later aligned with more nationalistic and independent policies).	Leaders: Knyaz Alexander I, and Konstantin Stoilov (a prominent conservative leader after the unification of Bulgaria).

The period between 1878 and 1885 was marked by frequent parliamentary elections, reflecting the dynamic and evolving nature of Bulgaria’s early political system. These elections were shaped by the ongoing struggle between liberal and conservative forces and the broader challenges of establishing a stable government in a newly autonomous state. The balance of power between the Liberals and Conservatives and the frequent political crises highlighted the complexities of nation-building in post-liberation Bulgaria. These developments set the stage for the pivotal events leading up to the unification with Eastern Rumelia in 1885.

Establishment of Foundational Institution in Bulgaria

Between 1876 and 1885, Bulgaria established several key institutions that played a crucial role in the nation’s development during its early years of independence. These institutions laid the foundation for Bulgaria’s political, educational, financial, and cultural systems. Here are some of the most significant ones:

Political and Governmental Institutions

• First Grand National Assembly (1879):
  • The First Grand National Assembly was convened in 1879 in Veliko Tarnovo to draft and adopt the Tarnovo Constitution. This assembly was crucial in establishing Bulgaria’s constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system.
• National Assembly (1879):
  • Following adopting the Tarnovo Constitution, the National Assembly was established as Bulgaria’s legislative body. The first parliamentary elections were held in April 1879, and the National Assembly became central to Bulgaria’s political system, responsible for passing laws and overseeing the government.
• Council of Ministers (1879):
  • Established in 1879, the Council of Ministers became the executive branch of the Bulgarian government. It was responsible for implementing laws and policies and was headed by the Prime Minister, appointed by the Prince.
• Supreme Court of Cassation (1879):
  • The Supreme Court of Cassation was established as the highest judicial authority in Bulgaria, ensuring the uniform application of laws and serving as the final court of appeal.

Financial Institutions

• Bulgarian National Bank (BNB) (1879):
  • The Bulgarian National Bank was established in 1879 as the central bank of Bulgaria. It played a critical role in stabilizing the Bulgarian economy, issuing currency, and managing the country’s financial system.
• Bulgarian Agricultural Bank (1881):
  • Founded in 1881, the Bulgarian Agricultural Bank provided financial support to farmers and agricultural enterprises, helping to modernize agriculture and improve productivity.

Cultural and Religious Institutions

• Bulgarian Orthodox Church – Exarchate:
  • The Bulgarian Orthodox Church, which re-established its independent exarchate in 1870, was crucial in maintaining national identity and culture. The Church established new theological schools during this period, expanding its influence in education and social life.
• National Library of Bulgaria (1878):
  • The National Library, founded in 1878 in Sofia, became the primary repository for Bulgarian literature, historical documents, and other cultural treasures. It played a key role in preserving and promoting Bulgarian culture and history.
• Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (1869, reorganized post-liberation):
  • Initially founded in 1869 as the Bulgarian Literary Society, it was reorganized and expanded after the liberation to become the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, a key institution for scientific research and cultural development.

Military Institutions

• Bulgarian Military Academy (established as a military school in 1878):
  • Founded initially as a military school in 1878, this institution was crucial in training officers for the Bulgarian army, which was essential for national defense and the eventual unification with Eastern Rumelia.

Healthcare Institutions

• Alexandrovska Hospital (1884):
  • Established in 1884 in Sofia, Alexandrovska Hospital was one of the first modern hospitals in Bulgaria. It provided advanced medical care and served as a model for future healthcare developments in the country.

Legal and Administrative Institutions

• State Printing Office (1881):
  • Established in 1881, the State Printing Office published official government documents, laws, and regulations. It played a critical role in disseminating information and legal texts nationwide.

These institutions were instrumental in laying the foundations of the modern Bulgarian state, contributing to its political stability, economic development, educational progress, and cultural revival during the critical period between 1876 and 1885.

Societal and Cultural Impact of the Treaty

The Treaty of San Stefano and the Congress of Berlin had far-reaching effects on Bulgarian society and culture. These events redefined Bulgaria’s political boundaries and sparked a profound cultural and national awakening. The desire for unification and independence became deeply embedded in the national consciousness, influencing literature, arts, education, and architecture.

Initial Reactions and National Sentiment

The signing of the Treaty of San Stefano was initially met with widespread jubilation across Bulgaria. For many Bulgarians, the prospect of a united Bulgarian state, free from Ottoman rule, was a dream come true. National pride soared as people celebrated the creation of a sizeable Bulgarian principality encompassing most of the territories inhabited by ethnic Bulgarians.

However, the decisions made at the Congress of Berlin quickly dampened this euphoria. Reducing Bulgarian territories and dividing the lands into separate entities led to a sense of betrayal and injustice. This shift in public sentiment fueled a growing determination to achieve unification and complete independence, which became central themes in Bulgarian society and politics.

Cultural Renaissance

The period following the Treaty of San Stefano and the Congress of Berlin saw a significant cultural renaissance in Bulgaria. Literature, poetry, and the arts flourished as Bulgarian intellectuals and artists sought to express their people’s national aspirations and struggles. This cultural revival was characterized by intense patriotism and a focus on liberation, unity, and national identity.

Literature and Poetry

Prominent literary figures such as Ivan Vazov (1850-1921), often called the “Patriarch of Bulgarian Literature”, played a crucial role in shaping the cultural landscape. Vazov’s novel Under the Yoke vividly depicted the struggles of the Bulgarian people during the Ottoman period and became a symbol of national resistance. Similarly, the poetry of Geo Milev, Lyuben Karavelov, and Hristo Botev inspired a sense of pride and determination among Bulgarians, highlighting the sacrifices made for the cause of freedom.

Art and Music

The visual arts and music began a revival following the Liberation and the Treaty of San Stefano, reflecting Bulgaria’s newfound sense of national identity. Nikolai Pavlovich, one of the key artists of this era, created works that depicted important moments from Bulgaria’s struggle for independence, contributing to the formation of a national consciousness. His painting “The Burning of the Monastery of St. Elijah” is one such example, portraying the heroism of the Bulgarian people.

Folk traditions were particularly influential in the realm of music. Emanuil Manolov and Angel Bukoreshtliev, active slightly later, were among the early composers who drew on these traditions to create music that resonated with the Bulgarian public. During the immediate post-liberation period, however, the folk songs themselves, especially those related to the haiduks (Bulgarian freedom fighters), played a vital role in the cultural life of the newly liberated state.

Sculpture in Bulgaria at this time was still developing, but the groundwork was laid for future monumental works that would commemorate the liberation. While major sculptures and monuments like the Monument to the Tsar Liberator by Arnoldo Zocchi were commissioned later, the desire to celebrate and memorialize Bulgaria’s heroes and essential events was already taking shape.

This period marked the beginning of a cultural renaissance in Bulgaria, where the visual arts and music started to reflect the nation’s struggles, victories, and aspirations for a united and independent future.

Development of National Education

Education was pivotal in Bulgaria’s cultural and societal development during this period. Establishing schools and educational institutions became a priority as the newly autonomous Bulgarian state sought to instill a sense of national identity in the younger generations.

Expansion of Educational Institutions

In the years following the Liberation in 1878, numerous schools were founded throughout Bulgaria, with a strong focus on teaching Bulgarian history, language, and culture. Notable educational institutions such as the Sofia Men’s High School (established in 1879) and the Plovdiv High School (the first high school in Bulgaria, established in 1850) became centers of learning that nurtured the next generation of Bulgarian leaders. The curriculum was carefully crafted to instill a deep sense of national pride and honor the sacrifices for freedom. Subjects like the Bulgarian Revival (Vazrazhdane), the legacy of national heroes such as Vasil Levski and Hristo Botev, and the rich cultural heritage of Bulgaria were emphasized. These schools played a crucial role in preparing the youth to meet the challenges of building a modern, independent state, ensuring that the spirit of the newly liberated nation would endure.

Role of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church

The Bulgarian Orthodox Church was indispensable in shaping Bulgaria’s educational and cultural landscape following the Liberation in 1878. As a pillar of national identity, the Church was deeply involved in establishing religious schools, which became vital centers for nurturing faith and national consciousness. Often attached to monasteries and local parishes, these schools were instrumental in teaching religious doctrines and the Bulgarian language, history, and literature.

Established in 1870, the Exarchate of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church became a driving force in the national revival, advocating for Bulgarians’ spiritual and cultural independence from the Greek-dominated Ecumenical Patriarchate. The Exarchate continued its mission post-liberation, focusing on creating a robust educational network across the newly liberated territories. Prominent figures like Exarch Joseph I, who led the Church from 1877 to 1915, were vital in promoting education aligned with Bulgarian national ideals.

Under the Church’s guidance, schools like the Sofia Theological Seminary, founded in 1876, and the Plovdiv Theological Seminary, established in 1884, trained future priests and teachers who would carry forward the Church’s mission of preserving Bulgarian culture and values. These institutions were religious centers and played a critical role in fostering a sense of national pride and identity among the youth.

Moreover, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church actively participated in preserving and promoting the Bulgarian language and Cyrillic script, which were crucial to maintaining national unity. The Church published religious texts in Bulgarian, ensuring the language remained a living and vibrant part of everyday life. This effort helped solidify the cultural foundation for building a modern Bulgarian state.

In addition to its educational initiatives, the Church provided moral and spiritual guidance during this transformative period. It supported the efforts of the Bulgarian people in their quest for unification and independence, offering solace and encouragement in times of national struggle. Through its sermons, rituals, and community involvement, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church became a beacon of hope and continuity, helping to navigate the challenges of forging a new nation from the remnants of centuries-old Ottoman rule.

Architecture and Urban Development

The cultural renaissance was also reflected in the architecture and urban development of the newly established Bulgarian state. The construction of public buildings, churches, and monuments during this period symbolized the nation’s rebirth and aspirations for the future.

Architectural Styles and Developments

The period between 1878 and 1885, following Bulgaria’s liberation from Ottoman rule, was a transformative time for Bulgarian architecture. During these years, Bulgarian Revival architecture, which had emerged during the latter part of the Ottoman period, continued to influence the construction of public buildings and private homes. This style was characterized by its use of traditional Bulgarian elements, such as intricate woodwork, large eaves, and vibrant colors, combined with more modern European influences.

As Bulgaria began to rebuild and modernize, there was a growing desire to reflect its newfound national identity through architecture. While the significant European-influenced architectural projects of later years were still in their planning stages, the groundwork for Bulgaria’s architectural transformation was laid during this period. Architects and builders began experimenting with blending Bulgarian Revival features with elements of Renaissance and Neoclassical styles, setting the stage for the more significant architectural developments after 1885.

Notable Buildings and Monuments

During the years immediately following the Liberation, several key buildings and architectural projects were initiated that reflected the national pride and aspirations of the newly autonomous state.

• The Bulgarian National Revival Houses (Late 19th Century): In the period immediately following 1878, the Bulgarian National Revival style continued to dominate the construction of homes, especially in smaller towns and rural areas. Towns like Koprivshtitsa, Tryavna, and Kalofer saw the construction of homes richly decorated with woodcarvings, painted murals, and large verandas. These houses became symbols of Bulgaria’s cultural heritage and national identity, reminding the nation of resilience and determination to maintain its traditions.
• Sofia Theological Seminary (Established in 1876, Expanded Post-Liberation): Although founded just before the Liberation, the Sofia Theological Seminary played a critical role in Bulgaria’s education and cultural development. The expansion of its facilities after 1878 reflected the growing importance of religious education and the Church’s role in fostering national identity. While primarily functional, The seminary’s architecture incorporated the Bulgarian Revival style elements, focusing on simplicity and spiritual symbolism.
• Restoration of Religious Buildings: Following the Liberation, there was a renewed focus on restoring and building churches that had been neglected or repurposed during the Ottoman period. Many of these churches, such as St. Nedelya Church in Sofia, underwent restoration work to preserve traditional Bulgarian architectural elements while introducing improvements that reflected the optimism of a newly liberated nation.

While the period between 1878 and 1885 was one of gradual architectural development, it laid the foundations for the more extensive and elaborate projects that would follow. These years were characterized by a focus on rebuilding and preserving Bulgarian cultural heritage, with a cautious yet hopeful embrace of modern European architectural influences. The blend of traditional Bulgarian and emerging European styles set the stage for the architectural renaissance that would later define Bulgaria’s urban landscape.

Societal Changes

The Treaty of San Stefano and the Congress of Berlin had far-reaching societal effects beyond culture and education. Between 1878 and 1885, Bulgaria saw the rise of a burgeoning middle class, the establishment of civic organizations, and a growing engagement in public life. This period laid the groundwork for the nation’s continued struggle for unification and independence.

Emergence of a Middle Class and Public Life

The newly autonomous Bulgarian state provided unprecedented economic growth and social mobility opportunities. The post-liberation period saw the rise of the middle class, primarily composed of merchants, professionals, and small landowners. This emerging class played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and driving the national movement. They were instrumental in pushing for reforms, advocating for national unity, and supporting establishing new institutions. The growth of trade, the expansion of educational opportunities, and the gradual modernization of agriculture all contributed to the empowerment of this class.

The press, which began to develop rapidly during this time, became a powerful tool for spreading ideas and mobilizing public support. Newspapers like “Maritsa” (established in 1881) and “Svoboda” (established in 1879 by Petko Karavelov) played a crucial role in informing and shaping public discourse.

National Symbols and Traditions

Many symbols and traditions defining Bulgarian national identity were established during this critical period. The Bulgarian flag, with its white, green, and red stripes, became a powerful symbol of the nation’s aspirations. The national anthem, “Shumi Maritsa,” adopted in 1885, inspired patriotism and unity. Monuments and ceremonies were introduced to honor the heroes of the liberation struggle, reinforcing a sense of national pride. These symbols and traditions became rallying points for the Bulgarian people as they pursued the goals of unification and independence.

Economy and Infrastructure Development

Overview of the Bulgarian Economy Post-Liberation

Following Bulgaria’s liberation in 1878, the economy transitioned from the Ottoman system to establishing a modern national economy. The Bulgarian economy was predominantly rural, with agriculture forming the backbone of economic activity. However, efforts were made to modernize and diversify the economy by developing manufacturing, trade, and services.

• Agriculture: Agriculture remained the dominant sector, with the majority of the population engaged in farming. Key crops included wheat, barley, maize, and tobacco, which were consumed domestically and exported. Livestock farming, mainly sheep and cattle, was also significant, with Bulgaria becoming known for its dairy products and wool.
• Manufacturing Facilities and Specific Industries: The early years of the post-liberation period saw the gradual development of manufacturing facilities. Small-scale industries emerged, particularly in urban centers such as Sofia, Plovdiv, and Varna. Notable industries included:
  • Textile Production: Textile manufacturing was one of the earliest industries to develop, particularly in Plovdiv and Gabrovo, known as the “Bulgarian Manchester” due to its focus on textiles.
  • Leatherworking and Footwear: Another critical industry was the production of leather goods and footwear, with centers in cities like Karlovo and Sliven.
  • Metalworking: Metalworking and producing agricultural tools, weapons, and household items were also critical to the early industrial economy. Workshops and small factories in towns like Kazanlak and Ruse began to mechanize production, laying the foundation for future industrial growth.
  • Food Processing: The processing of agricultural products, such as milling grains and producing spirits and wine, also began to expand during this period, with local industries serving both domestic needs and export markets.
• Trade and Services: Trade was essential to the Bulgarian economy, particularly in cities like Plovdiv, a key commercial hub. Bulgaria’s strategic location in the Balkans facilitated trade routes connecting Europe and Asia. The main exports included agricultural products, textiles, and leather goods. Imports primarily comprised machinery, industrial equipment, and luxury goods from Western Europe.
  • Black Sea Ports: Ports like Varna and Burgas played vital roles in trade, connecting Bulgaria to international markets. Their expansion and modernization were essential for increasing export capabilities.
  • Banking and Finance: The financial sector was still developing, but several local banks were established to support trade and industry during this period. These banks, including the Bulgarian National Bank (established in 1879), began offering credit and financial services, although their reach was initially limited.

Infrastructure Development

Infrastructure development was a key priority for the newly autonomous Bulgarian state. The government recognized that modern infrastructure was essential for economic growth and national integration.

• Roads: The road network inherited from the Ottoman period was inadequate and in poor condition. The Bulgarian government initiated programs to improve and expand the road system, focusing on connecting major cities and facilitating trade. Key roads were built to link Sofia with Plovdiv, Varna, and other significant centers, improving domestic trade and military mobility.
• Railways: The development of railways was one of the most significant infrastructure projects of the period. The first railway line connecting Ruse with Varna was completed in 1866, but further expansion was necessary. Between 1878 and 1885, efforts were made to extend the railway network, including the Sofia-Karlovo and Sofia-Pernik lines. These railways were crucial for economic development, enabling the efficient movement of goods and people and stimulating regional trade. In 1883, the first Orient Express train passengers arrived in Ruse and ferried across the Danube from Romania to pick up another train to Varna.
• Urban Planning: Urban centers, particularly Sofia, saw significant development during this period. The expansion of the capital included constructing public buildings, roads, and utilities. Sofia’s transformation from a small town to a modern capital symbolized Bulgaria’s aspirations for modernization and progress. Notable developments included establishing municipal water systems, street lighting, and constructing government buildings in the Bulgarian Revival architectural style.

Taxation and Government Revenue (1878–1885)

After Bulgaria’s liberation in 1878, the newly established government faced the challenge of generating revenue to support state-building efforts, fund infrastructure projects, and meet the population’s growing needs. To achieve these goals, the government implemented several forms of taxation, each tailored to the economic conditions of the time.

Land Tax

The Land Tax was one of the most significant sources of revenue for the Bulgarian state, reflecting the rural nature of the economy. This tax was codified in the Law on Land Taxation of 1880, which established the legal framework for its collection.

• Assessment: The tax was assessed based on the size and productivity of the landholdings. Larger estates and more fertile lands were taxed at higher rates. The tax rate was typically set at 10% of the produce or its monetary equivalent. This tax rate was uniform across the principality, but the amount collected varied depending on the land’s productivity.
• Revenue Collected: In the early 1880s, the land tax accounted for approximately 50% of the state’s total revenue. The government collected an estimated 4 million leva annually from this tax, which funded vital infrastructure projects and government services.
• Implementation: Tax collection was organized through local tax offices, which were responsible for assessing land productivity and collecting taxes. The government faced challenges in collection, particularly in remote areas, but the land tax remained a cornerstone of Bulgaria’s fiscal policy during this period.

Trade and Excise Taxes

Trade and excise taxes were also crucial for government revenue. The Law on Trade and Excise Duties of 1881 established the framework for these taxes, targeting goods widely produced and consumed.

• Excise Taxes: Excise taxes were applied to products such as tobacco, alcohol, and textiles, key industries in the Bulgarian economy. For instance, the excise tax on tobacco was set at 20% of the sale price. Alcoholic beverages were taxed at rates ranging from 10% to 15%, depending on the type and alcohol content. These taxes were designed to both regulate trade and generate revenue.
• Revenue Collected: Excise taxes contributed significantly to the state’s income, providing about 15% of total government revenue. The tobacco industry, in particular, was a major contributor, with excise taxes from tobacco sales generating approximately 1.5 million leva annually.
• Implementation: The collection of excise taxes was overseen by the Ministry of Finance, which established customs and excise offices in major cities and ports. These offices ensured taxes on goods produced or sold within the country were paid.

Import and Export Duties

Import and export duties were established to protect and encourage the development of local industries while providing additional revenue for the state.

• Import Duties: The Tariff Law of 1882 introduced import duties on various goods. Luxury items, such as fine textiles, jewelry, and imported wines, were taxed at as high as 30% of their value. Essential goods and industrial machinery necessary for developing local industries faced lower duties, typically around 5% to 10%.
• Export Duties: Export duties were generally lower, set at 2% to 5%, and were applied to goods such as agricultural produce, raw materials, and manufactured goods. These duties were intended to encourage the growth of domestic industries by making exports more competitive in international markets.
• Revenue Collected: Import and export duties combined accounted for approximately 10% of total government revenue, with annual collections reaching around 2 million leva.
• Implementation: The Ministry of Finance, through its customs offices located in key ports like Varna and Burgas, managed the collection of import and export duties. These offices ensured that duties were paid on goods entering and leaving the country and played a vital role in regulating trade.

Personal Income Tax

Personal income tax was a relatively new concept in Bulgaria during this period, and its implementation was limited to wealthier citizens and those involved in commerce and industry. The Income Tax Law of 1883 laid the groundwork for this tax.

• Tax Rates: The income tax was progressive, starting at 5% for lower-income earners and rising to 15% for those with higher incomes. However, due to the rural nature of the economy and the limited number of industrial enterprises, the income tax base was relatively small.
• Revenue Collected: The income tax contributed modestly to government revenue, about 5%. Collections were estimated at 500,000 leva annually, reflecting the country’s early industrial and commercial development stage.
• Implementation: The tax was collected by local tax offices responsible for assessing income levels and ensuring compliance. However, due to the challenges of accurately assessing income in an economy dominated by agriculture and small-scale trade, the income tax was less significant than other forms of taxation during this period.

Between 1878 and 1885, Bulgaria’s taxation system was critical in generating the revenue needed to build the new state. Land tax was the most significant income source, reflecting the importance of the agricultural economy. Trade and excise taxes, import and export duties, and the nascent personal income tax contributed to the state’s financial stability. These taxes were codified in laws enacted during this period, laying the foundation for Bulgaria’s fiscal policy and supporting the country’s efforts to modernize and integrate its economy.

Reparations and Financial Obligations

Following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Bulgaria was not required to pay direct reparations to Russia for its liberation. However, the newly established Principality of Bulgaria and the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia faced significant financial obligations due to the war costs and the establishment of the new Bulgarian state.

While Russia did not impose a formal debt on Bulgaria, the costs associated with maintaining the Russian military presence and providing administrative support were substantial. Russian forces remained in Bulgaria until the summer of 1879, and during this period, Bulgaria was expected to cover part of the occupation costs. These costs were primarily related to the maintenance of Russian troops, their supplies, and the salaries of Russian officials who helped stabilize the nascent Bulgarian government. The occupation costs were estimated at 10 million rubles, which Bulgaria was expected to contribute over several years.

Bulgarian National Debt and Financial Management Post-Liberation (1878-1908)

Following the Congress of Berlin in 1878 and the formal establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria, the newly independent state faced considerable financial challenges. The Bulgarian government needed to secure loans and financial support from both domestic and foreign sources to build the infrastructure and institutions necessary for a modern state. This period marked the beginning of Bulgaria’s efforts to stabilize its economy, develop a national infrastructure, and assert its independence on the European stage.

Initial Loans and Debt Accumulation

In the years following liberation, Bulgaria began to take on debt to finance critical infrastructure projects and support establishing government institutions. The first significant foreign loans were secured in 1888 and 1889, primarily from Austro-Hungarian and German financial institutions. These loans (amounting to approximately 30 million leva, or its equivalent in gold francs) were crucial for financing the construction of a national railway network, which was essential for economic development and integration with European markets.

Throughout the late 19th century, Bulgaria continued to seek additional loans from European banks. By the early 1900s, Bulgaria had negotiated several more loans to fund various infrastructure projects, including expanding the railway system and constructing public buildings in Sofia. These financial agreements were often secured relatively favorably, reflecting Bulgaria’s improving political stability and growing economic potential. By the turn of the century, Bulgaria’s total national debt had increased significantly, marking a shift from reliance on foreign aid to an emerging capacity to independently engage in international financial markets.

Debt from Military Expenditures

Despite the restrictions the Treaty of Berlin imposed, which limited Bulgaria’s military capacity, the government still allocated a substantial portion of its budget to defense spending. Regional tensions drove this focus on military expenditures, the desire to unify with Eastern Rumelia, and the need to protect national sovereignty. Defense spending, which included the purchase of weapons, the construction of fortifications, and the training of soldiers, represented one of the largest categories of public expenditure. The heavy investment in military preparedness contributed significantly to the accumulation of national debt during this period.

Debt Management and Repayment Strategies

Bulgaria’s approach to managing its growing debt in the decades following liberation was characterized by a cautious but strategic focus on economic modernization. The government prioritized investments in infrastructure, viewing them as essential for fostering economic growth and securing the country’s long-term stability. By the early 20th century, Bulgaria had established a reputation for managing its debt obligations effectively, maintaining a stable financial position in European markets. This prudent financial management allowed Bulgaria to gradually increase its borrowing capacity while avoiding the risk of default.

Compared to the initial years following liberation, when Bulgaria had limited financial resources and was more dependent on external support, the period from 1878 to 1908 saw a notable improvement in the country’s ability to manage and repay its debts. This financial maturity was crucial for Bulgaria’s economic development and helped lay the foundation for its declaration of complete independence in 1908, free from substantial external economic pressures.

Learn more about Bulgaria’s national debt and how it influences its foreign policy decisions.

Economic Consequences of Financial Obligations

The financial obligations incurred by Bulgaria following its liberation in 1878 had significant and lasting impacts on the country’s economy and political landscape.

Economic Strain and Austerity Measures

The accumulation of national debt to finance infrastructure projects and military expenditures greatly strained Bulgaria’s economy. By the mid-1880s, the debt had increased substantially, prompting the government to adopt austerity measures to manage its financial obligations. These measures included raising taxes and curtailing public spending, which, while necessary to stabilize the economy, led to a decrease in the standard of living, particularly in rural areas where most of the population resided. The focus on debt repayment and financial stability slowed economic growth, affecting Bulgaria’s overall economic development during this formative period.

Influence of Foreign Creditors

Bulgaria’s reliance on loans from European banks, particularly those from Austria-Hungary and Germany, introduced a significant foreign influence over its economic policies. The need for continuous financial support gave these foreign powers considerable leverage, often compelling Bulgaria to make political concessions. For instance, securing loans sometimes required the acceptance of foreign advisors overseeing specific aspects of economic policy, which could conflict with Bulgaria’s national interests. This dynamic created a complex interplay between Bulgaria’s financial needs and political sovereignty, affecting its foreign relations and internal governance.

Impact on Unification Efforts with Eastern Rumelia

The financial pressures associated with Bulgaria’s growing debt also influenced its approach to the unification with Eastern Rumelia. While the desire for national unification was strong, the government had to carefully weigh the economic costs associated with potential military conflicts and the challenges of integrating Eastern Rumelia’s economy into the Bulgarian state. This cautious approach was necessitated by the financial strain and the increasing dependence on foreign loans, which complicated Bulgaria’s ability to act independently in pursuing its unification ambitions.

The Interconnectedness of Financial Stability and Political Sovereignty

The period following Bulgaria’s liberation until significant financial and political challenges marked the mid-1880s as the country worked to solidify its independence and modernize its state institutions. Although Bulgaria was not directly burdened by reparations to Russia, the costs of Russian occupation and the overall accumulation of national debt played a critical role in shaping its economic policies. Managing these financial challenges necessitated careful balancing of domestic needs with the demands of foreign creditors, influencing Bulgaria’s path toward national unification and modernization. The complexities of managing growing debt and foreign influence underscored the delicate balance between achieving financial stability and maintaining political sovereignty, shaping Bulgaria’s policies and its trajectory as a newly independent state.

The Path to Unification

Between 1878 and 1885, the period was crucial in laying the foundations of Bulgaria’s political system. The adoption of the Tarnovo Constitution, the establishment of a parliamentary system through competitive elections, and the rise of political parties all contributed to the shaping of modern Bulgaria. However, this period was also marked by significant challenges, including power struggles between the monarchy and parliament and the ongoing pursuit of national unification. These developments would continue to influence Bulgaria’s political landscape in the years leading up to the unification with Eastern Rumelia in 1885.

Political Maneuvering Post-Treaty

Following the Congress of Berlin, Bulgaria found itself in a delicate position. The Principality of Bulgaria was autonomous but still nominally under Ottoman suzerainty, while Eastern Rumelia was established as a separate, semi-autonomous province. This division was a source of profound dissatisfaction among Bulgarians, who saw the unity of these territories as essential for the realization of a fully independent and sovereign Bulgarian state.

Diplomatic Initiatives

Bulgaria’s leaders, aware of the need for international recognition, engaged in careful diplomacy to secure support for their unification goals. Prince Alexander I, the first ruler of the newly established Principality of Bulgaria, played an instrumental role in these efforts. Despite the limitations imposed by the Berlin Treaty, he worked to strengthen Bulgaria’s military and administrative institutions, laying the groundwork for future actions.

Internal Preparations

Internally, Bulgaria focused on building its military and civil infrastructure. The government invested in education, the military, and the economy, all essential for sustaining the growing aspirations for unification.

Prelude to Unification

The desire for unification with Eastern Rumelia reached a critical point in 1885. By this time, the political climate in Europe was becoming more favorable, and Bulgaria’s leaders saw an opportunity to act.

The Unification of 1885

On September 6, 1885, a bloodless coup was carried out in Plovdiv, the capital of Eastern Rumelia. The Bulgarian army, supported by local militias and public figures, took control of the province and declared its unification with the Principality of Bulgaria. Prince Alexander I quickly endorsed the unification, further solidifying the move.

Final Words

Following the Treaty of San Stefano, Bulgaria entered a significant period of transformation, now also known as the era of the Third Bulgarian State. This historical phase was marked by a blend of hope and disappointment, struggle and triumph, as the Bulgarian people embarked on a new journey toward national unity and independence. The legacy of this time still deeply influences Bulgaria’s national identity and evolving role as a modern European nation.

The Treaty of San Stefano symbolized Bulgarian unity and independence despite its short-lived provisions. The subsequent revisions at the Congress of Berlin, which reduced Bulgaria’s territories, fueled a sense of injustice and a determined resolve to achieve national unification. This period of national struggle and cultural renaissance set the stage for the unification of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia in 1885, a critical step toward realizing the vision of a united and independent Bulgaria.

The drive for unification and independence, deeply rooted in the ideals of the Treaty of San Stefano, continued to shape Bulgaria’s national identity and foreign policy well into the 20th century. The unification of 1885, achieved through strategic political maneuvering and widespread public support, demonstrated the resilience and determination of the Bulgarian people.

As Bulgaria moved towards complete independence in 1908, the legacy of 1878 remained a powerful force in the nation’s consciousness. This period’s cultural and societal developments laid the foundation for modern Bulgaria, influencing everything from literature and architecture to education and public life.

Bulgaria’s period following the Treaty of San Stefano was one of profound transformation. It was a time of hope and disappointment, struggle and triumph, as the Bulgarian people forged a new path toward national unity and independence. The legacy of these events continues to resonate in Bulgaria’s national identity and its ongoing journey as a modern European nation.

References and Sources

• Treaty of San Stefano (1878). United Nations Treaty Collection. Link to Source
• Bulgarian National Archives. Records from the Ministry of Finance, 1878–1885.
• Crampton, R. J. A Concise History of Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 9780521616379.
• Ilchev, Ivan. The Making of Modern Bulgaria (1878–1918). Sofia University Press, 2013. ISBN 9789540734947.
• “Post-Liberation Bulgarian Economic Development” in Balkan Studies, Vol. 15, Issue 2, 1984. Link to JSTOR
• “Bulgaria’s Political Landscape Post-San Stefano” in The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 50, No. 4, 1978.
• “Economic Developments in Bulgaria, 1878–1885.” JSTOR, Link to database
• National Library of Bulgaria Digital Archive. Link to archive
• Bulgarian National Bank. Annual Report, 1880–1885. Link to BNB
• Statistical Yearbook of the Principality of Bulgaria, 1880–1885.